Introduction to Modern Virology (Sixth Edition)

N. J. Dimmock, A. J. Easton and K. N. Leppard

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Further Reading

Chapter 1. Towards a Definition of a Virus

• Cann, A. 2001. Principles of Molecular Virology, 3rd edn. Academic Press, London.
• Flint , S. J., Enquist, L. W., Krug, R. M., Racaniello, V. R., Skalka, A. M. 2003. Principles of Virology: molecular biology, pathogenesis, and control, 2nd edn. ASM Press, Harnden, VA.
• Granoff, A., Webster, R. G. 1999. Encyclopedia of Virology, 2nd edn, vol 1. Academic Press, New York.
• Hull , R. 2002. Matthew’s Plant Virology, 4th edn. Academic Press, New York.
• Knipe, D. M., Howley, P. M., Griffin, D. E., et al. 2001. Field’s Virology, 4th edn. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia.
• Mahy, B. W. J. 2001. A Dictionary of Virology, 3rd edn. Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
• Murphy, F. A., Gibbs, E. P. J., Horzinek, M. C., Studdert, M. J. 1999. Veterinary Virology, 3rd edn. Academic Press, New York.
• Old, R. W., Primrose, S. B. 1994. Principles of Genetic Manipulation, 5th edn. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford.
• White, D. O., Fenner, F. J. 1994. Medical Virology, 4th edn. Academic Press, New York.
• Zuckerman, A. J., Banatvala, J., Pattison, J. R. 1999. Principles and Practice of Clinical Virology, 4th edn. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester.
• Also check Appendix 7 for references specific to each family of viruses.

Chapter 2. Some Methods for Studying Animal Viruses

• Adolph, K. W. 1994. Molecular virology techniques. In Methods in Molecular Genetics, vol. 4. Academic Press, New York.
• Bendinelli, M., Friedman, H. 1998. Rapid detection of Infectious Agents. Plenum, New York.
• Clementi, N. 2000. Quantitative molecular analysis of virus expression and replication. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 38, 2030–2036.
• Crowther, J. R. 2000. The ELISA guide. Humana, Totowa, NJ.
• Desselberger, U., Flewett, T. H. 1993. Clinical and public health virology: a continuous task of changing pattern. Progress in Medical Virology 40, 48–81.
• Harlow, E., Lane, D. 1988. Antibodies: A Laboratory Manual. Cold Spring Harbor Press, NY.
• Liddell, J. E., Weeks, I. 1995. Antibody Technology. Bios Scientific Publishers, Oxford.
• Mahy, B. W. J., Kangro, H. O. 1996. Virology Methods Manual. Academic Press, London.
• Masters, J. R. W. 1999. Animal cell culture, 3rd edn. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
• Payment, P., Trudel, M. 1993. Methods and Techniques in Virology. Marcel Dekker, New York.
• Price, C., Newman, D. 1996. Principles and Practice of Immunoassay, 2nd edn. Stockton, London.
• Taubenberger, J. K., Layne, S. P. 2001. Diagnosis of influenza virus: coming to grips with the molecular era. Molecular Diagnosis 6, 291–305.
• Wiedbrauk, D. L., Farkas, D. H. 1995. Molecular Methods for Virus Detection. Academic Press, New York.
• Wild, D. 2001. The Immunoassay Handbook, 2nd edn. Nature Publishing Group, London.
• Also check Appendix 7 for references specific to each family of viruses.

Chapter 3. The Structure of Virus Particles

• Branden, C., Tooze, J. 1999. Introduction to Protein Structure, 2nd edn. Garland Publishing, New York.
• Butler , P. J. G. 1984. The current picture of the structure and assembly of tobacco mosaic virus. Journal of General Virology 65, 253–279.
• Caspar, D. L. D., Klug, A. 1962. Physical principles in the construction of regular viruses. Cold Spring Harbor Symposium of Quantitative Biology 27, 1–24.
• Eiserling, F. A. 1979. Bacteriophage structure. In Comprehensive Virology (H. Fraenkel-Conrat, and R. R. Wagner, eds), Vol. 13, pp. 543–580. Plenum Press, New York.
• Hogle, J. M., ed. 1990. Virus structure. Seminars in Virology1, 385–487 (several articles).
• Johnson, J. E. 2003. Virus particle dynamics. Advances in Protein Chemistry 64, 197–218.
• Rixon, F. J., Chiu, W. 2003. Studying large viruses. Advances in Protein Chemistry 64, 379–408.
• Smith, T. J., Baker, T. 1999. Picornaviruses: epitopes, canyons, and pockets. Advances in Virus Research 53, 1–23.
• Stuart, D. 1993. Virus structures. Current Opinion in Structural Biology 3, 167–174.
• Tyler, K. L., Oldstone, M. B. A. 1998. Reoviruses I. Structure, proteins and genetics. Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology 233, 1–213.
• Wiley, D. C., Skehel, J. J. 1987. The structure and function of the hemagglutinin membrane glycoprotein of influenza virus. Annual Review of Biochemistry 56 , 365–394.
• Zhou, Z. H., Chiu, W. 2003. Determination of icosahedral virus structures by electron cryomicroscopy at sub-nanometer resolution. Advances in Protein Chemistry 64, 93–124.
• For images of virus particles see the Virus Particle Explorer (VIPER) website: http://viperdb.scripps.edu
• Also check Appendix 7 for references specific to each family of viruses.

Chapter 4. Classification of Viruses

• Baltimore, D. 1971. Expression of animal virus genomes. Bacteriological Reviews 35, 235–241.
• Fauquet, C. M., Mayo, M. A., Maniloff, J., Desselberger, U., Ball, L. A., eds. 2005. Virus
• Taxonomy: VIIIth report of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses , 8th edn. Elsevier Press, Amsterdam.
• Flores, R., Di Serio, F., Hernández, C. 1997. Viroids: the noncoding genomes. Seminars in Virology 8, 65–73.
• Karayiannis, P. 1998. Hepatitis D virus. Reviews in Medical Virology 8, 13–24.
• Symons, R. H., ed. 1990. Viroids and related pathogenic RNAs. Seminars in Virology, 1(2).
• The website of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)
  http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ICTVdb/index.htm
• The GenBank sequence database (includes virus genome sequences) http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Entrez/index.html

Chapter 5. The Process of Infection: I. Attachment of Viruses and the Entry of Their Genomes into the Target Cell

• Carson, S. D. 2001. Receptor for the group B coxsackie viruses and adenoviruses: CAR. Reviews in Medical Virology 11, 219–226.
• Clapham, P. R., McKnight, A. 2002. Cell surface receptors, virus entry and tropism of primate lentiviruses. Journal of General Virology 83, 1809–1829.
• Dimitrov, D. S. 2004. Virus entry: molecular mechanisms and biomedical applications. Nature Reviews Microbiology 2, 109–122.
• Forrest, J. C., Dermody, T. S. 2003. Reovirus receptors and pathogenesis. Journal of Virology 77, 9109–9115.
• Greenberg, M., Cammack, N., Salgo, M., Smiley, L. 2004. HIV fusion and its inhibition in antiretroviral therapy. Reviews in Medical Virology 14, 321–337.
• Hogle, J. 2002. Poliovirus cell entry: common structural themes in viral cell entry pathways. Annual Review of Microbiology 56, 677–702.
• Lindberg, A. A. 1977. Bacterial surface carbohydrate and bacteriophage adsorption. In Surface Carbohydrates of Prokaryotic Cells ( I. W. Sutherland, ed.), pp. 289–356. Academic Press, London.
• Marsh, M., Pelchen-Matthews, A. 2000. Endocytosis in viral replication. Traffic 1, 525–532.
• Pierson, T. C., Doms, R. W., Pohlmann, S. 2004. Prospects of HIV-1 entry inhibitors as novel therapeutics. Reviews in Medical Virology 14, 255–270.
• Poranen, M., Daugelavicius, R., Bamford, D. H. 2002. Common principles in viral entry. Annual Review of Microbiology 56, 521–538.
• Rinaldo, C. R., Piazza, P. 2004. Virus infection of dendritic cells: portal for host invasion and host defense. Trends in Microbiology 12, 337–345.
• Schneider-Schaulies, J. 2000. Cellular receptors for viruses: links to tropism and pathogenesis. Journal of General Virology 81, 1413–1429.
• Sieczkarski, S. B., Whittaker, G. R. 2002. Dissecting virus entry via endocytosis. Journal of General Virology 83, 1535–1545.
• Skehel, J. J., Wiley, D. C. 2000. Receptor binding and membrane fusion in virus entry: the influenza hemagglutinin. Annual Review of Biochemistry 69, 531–569.
• Stewart, P. L., Dermody, T. S., Nemerow, G. R. 2003. Structural basis of nonenveloped virus cell entry. Advances in Protein Chemistry 64, 455–491.
• Yanagi, Y. 2001. The cellular receptor for measles virus – elusive no more. Reviews in Medical Virology 11, 149–156.
• Also check Appendix 7 for references specific to each family of viruses.

Chapter 6. The Process of Infection: IIA. The Replication of Viral DNA

• Challberg, M., ed. 1991. Viral DNA replication. Seminars in Virology2(4).
• Cotmore, S. F. & Tattershall, P. 1995. DNA replication in the autonomous parvoviruses. Seminars in Virology 5, 271–281.
• Lehman, I. R. & Boehmer, P. E. 1999. Replication of herpes simplex virus DNA. Journal of Biological Chemistry 274, 28059–28062.
• Kornberg, A. & Baker, T. 1991. DNA replication, 2nd edn. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.
• Liu, H., Naismith, J. H., Hay, R. T. 2003. Adenovirus DNA replication. Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology 272, 131–164.
• Ogawa, T. & Okazaki, T. 1980. Discontinuous DNA replication. Annual Review of Biochemistry 49, 421–457.
• Waga, S. & Stillman, B. 1994. Anatomy of a DNA replication fork revealed by reconstitution of SV40 DNA replication in vitro. Nature 369, 207–212.
• Waga, S. & Stillman, B. 1998. The DNA replication fork in eukaryotic cells. Annual Review of Biochemistry 67, 721–751.
• Also check Appendix 7 for references specific to each family of viruses.

Chapter 7. The Process of Infection: IIB. Genome Replication in RNA Viruses

• Conzelmann, K-K. 1998. Nonsegmented negativestranded RNA viruses: genetics and manipulation of viral genomes. Annual Review of Genetics 32, 123–162.
• Curran, J., Kolakofsky, D. 1999. Replication of paramyxoviruses. Advances in Virus Research 54, 403–422.
• Dimmock, N. J. 1991. The biological significance of defective interfering viruses. Reviews in Medical Virology 1, 165–176.
• Karayannis, P. 1998. Hepatitis D virus. Reviews in Medical Virology 8, 13–24.
• Lai, M. M. C., Cavanagh, D. 1997. The molecular biology of coronaviruses. Advances in Virus Research 48, 1–100.
• Marriott, A. C., Easton, A. J. 2000. Paramyxoviruses. In, reverse genetics of RNA viruses. Advances in Virus Research 53, 312–340.
• Portela, A., Digard, P. 2002. The influenza virus nucleoprotein: a multifunctional RNA-binding protein pivotal to virus replication. Journal of General Virology 83, 723–734.
• Roux, L., Simon, A. E., Holland, J. J. 1991. Effects of defective interfering viruses on viral replication and pathogenesis in vitro and in vivo. Advances in Virus Research 40, 181–211.
• Spence, N., Barbara, D. 2000. Viroids and other subviral pathogens of plants: the smallest living fossils? Microbiology Today 27, 168–170.
• Taylor, J. M. 1992. The structure and replication of hepatitis delta virus. Annual Review of Microbiology 42, 253–276.
• Taylor, J. M. 2003. Replication of human hepatitis delta virus: recent developments. Trends in Microbiology 11, 185–190.
• Also check Appendix 7 for references specific to each family of viruses.

Chapter 8. The Process of Infection: IIC. The Replication of RNA Viruses with a DNA Intermediate and Vice Versa

• Acheampong, E., Rosario-Otero, M., Dornburg, R., Pomerantz, R. J. 2003. Replication of lentiviruses. Frontiers in Bioscience 8, S156–S174.
• Delelis, O., Lehmann-Che, J., Saib, A. 2004. Foamy viruses – a world apart. Current Opinion in Microbiology 7, 400–406.
• Goff, S. P. 1992. Genetics of retroviral integration. Annual Review of Genetics 26, 527–544.
• Linial, M. L. 1999. Foamy viruses are unconventional retroviruses. Journal of Virology 73, 1747–1755.
• Nassal, M., Schaller, H. 1993. Hepatitis B virus replication. Trends in Microbiology 1, 221–228.
• Paillart, J. C., Shehu-Xhilaga, M., Marquet, R., Mak, J. 2004. Dimerization of retroviral RNA genomes: an inseparable pair. Nature Reviews Microbiology 2, 461–472.
• Seeger, C., Mason, W. S. 1996. Reverse transcription and amplification of the hepatitis B virus genome. In DNA replication in Eukaryotic Cells (M. DePamphilis, ed.), pp. 815–831. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, NY.
• Wilhelm, M., Wilhelm, F. X. 2001. Reverse transcription of retroviruses and LTR retrotransposons. Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences 58, 1246–1262.
• Also check Appendix 7 for references specific to each family of viruses.

Chapter 9. The Process of Infection: IIIA. Gene Expression in DNA Viruses and Reverse-Transcribing Viruses

• Flint , J., Shenk, T. 1997. Viral transactivating proteins. Annual Reviews of Genetics 31, 177–212.
• Fuchs, D. G., Pfister, H. 1994. Transcription of papillomavirus genomes. Intervirology 37, 159–167.
• Wysocka, J., Herr, W. 2003. The herpes simplex virus VP16-induced complex: the makings of a regulatory switch. Trends in Biochemical Sciences 28, 294–304.
• Gene expression of retroviruses and hepadnaviruses is considered in the further reading suggested in Chapter 8.
• Some aspects of gene expression for various viruses covered in this chapter are included in the further reading suggested in Chapter 20.
• Also check Appendix 7 for references specific to each family of viruses.

Chapter 10. The Process of Infection: IIIB. Gene Expression and its Regulation in RNA Viruses

• Bartlett N. M., Gilles, S. C., Bullivant, S., Bellamy, A. R. 1974. Electron microscopy study of reovirus reaction cores. Journal of Virology 14, 315–326.
• Bishop, D. H. L. 1986. Ambisense RNA genomes of arenaviruses and phleboviruses. Advances in Virus Research 31, 1–51.
• Conzelmann, K-K. 1998. Nonsegmented negativestranded RNA viruses: genetics and manipulation of viral genomes. Annual Review of Genetics 32, 123–162.
• Curran, J., Kolakofsky, D. 1999. Replication of paramyxoviruses. Advances in Virus Research 54, 403–422.
• Curran, J., Latorre, P., Kolakofsky, D. 1998. Translational gymnastics on the Sendai virus P/C mRNA. Seminars in Virology 8, 351–357.
• Kormelink, R., de Haan, P., Meurs, C., Peters, D., Goldbach, R. 1992. The nucleotide-sequence of the M RNA segment of tomato spotted wilt virus, a bunyavirus with 2 ambisense RNA segments. Journal of General Virology 73, 2795–2804.
• Lai, M. M. C., Cavanagh, D. 1997. The molecular biology of coronaviruses. Advances in Virus Research 48, 1–100.
• Lamb, R. A., Horvath, C. M. 1991. Diversity of coding strategies in influenza-viruses. Trends in Genetics 7, 261–266.
• Portela, A., Zurcher, T., Nieto, A., Ortin, J. 1999. Replication of orthomyxoviruses. Advances in Virus Research 54, 319–348.
• Strauss, J. H., Strauss, E. G. 1994. The alphaviruses – gene-expression, replication, and evolution. Microbiological Reviews 58, 491–562.

Chapter 11. The Process of Infection: IV. The Assembly of Viruses

• Butler , P. J. G. 1984. The current picture of the structure and assembly of tobacco mosaic virus. Journal of General Virology 65, 253–279.
• Compans, R. W. 1991. Protein traffic in eukaryotic cells. Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology 170, 1–186.
• Earnshaw, W. C., Casjens, S. R. 1980. DNA packaging by the double-stranded DNA bacteriophages. Cell 21, 319–331.
• Fujisawa , H., Hearing, P. 1994. Structure, function packaging signals and specificity of the DNA in double-stranded DNA viruses Seminars in Virology 5, 5–13.
• Henrik Garoff, H, Sjöberg, M., Cheng, R. H. 2004. Budding of alphaviruses. Virus Research 106, 103–116.
• Homa, F. L., Brown, J. C. 1997. Capsid assembly and DNA packaging in herpes simplex virus. Reviews in Medical Virology 7, 107–122.
• Hunter, E. 1994. Macromolecular interactions in the assembly of HIV and other retroviruses. Seminars in Virology 5, 71–83.
• Jones, I. M., Morikawa, Y. 1998. The molecular basis of HIV capsid assembly. Reviews in Medical Virology 8, 87–95.
• Mettenleiter, T. C. 2002. Herpesvirus assembly and egress. Journal of Virology 76, 1537–1547.
• Nayak, D. P., Hui, E. K., Barman, S. 2004. Assembly and budding of influenza virus. Virus Research 106, 147–165.

Chapter 12. The Immune System and Virus Neutralization

• Ahmed, R., ed. 1996. Immunity to viruses. Seminars in Virology 7, 93–155 (several articles).
• Alcamí, A., Koszinowski, U. H. 2000. Viral evasion of immune responses. Immunology Today 21, 447–455.
• Biron, C., Nguyen, K. B., Pien, G. C., Cousens, L. P., Salazar-Mather, T. P. 1999. Natural killer cells in antiviral defense: function and regulation by innate cytokines. Annual Review of Immunology 17, 189–200.
• Boehme, K. W., Compton, T. 2004. Innate sensing of viruses by Toll-like receptors. Journal of Virology 78, 7867–7873.
• Burton , D. R., Williamson, R. A., Parren, P. W. H. I. 2000. Antibody and virus: binding and neutralization. Virology 270, 1–3.
• Globerson, A., Effros, R. B. 2000. Ageing of lymphocytes and lymphocytes in the aged. Immunology Today 21, 515–521.
• Goldsby, R. A., Kindt, T. J., Osbourne, B. 2000. Kuby Immunology, 4th edn. W. H. Freeman, New York.
• Jankovic, D., Liu, Z., Gause, W. C. 2001. Th1- and Th2-cell commitment during infectious disease: asymmetry in divergent pathways. Trends in Immunology 22, 450–457.
• Katze, M. G., He, Y., Gale, M. 2002. Viruses and interferon: a fight for supremacy. Nature Reviews Immunology 2, 675–687.
• McIntosh, E. D., Paradiso, P. R. 2003. Recent progress in the development of vaccines for infants and children. Vaccine 21, 601–604.
• Rinaldo, C. R., Piazza, P. 2004. Virus infection of dendritic cells: portal for host invasion and host defense. Trends in Microbiology 12, 337–345.
• Slifka, M. K. 2004. Immmunological memory to viral infection. Current Opinion in Immunology 16, 443–450.
• Takeda, A., Kawaoka, Y. 2003. Antibody-dependent enhancement of viral infection: molecular mechanisms and in vivo implications. Reviews in Medical Virology 13, 387–398.
• Tortorella, D., Gewurz, B. E., Furman, M. H., Schust, D. J., Ploegh, H. L. 2000. Viral subversion of the immune system. Annual Review of Immunology 18, 861–926.
• Also check Appendix 7 for references specific to each family of viruses.

Chapter 13. Interactions Between Animal Viruses and Cells

• Carrasco, L. 1995. Modification of membrane permeability by animal viruses. Advances in Virus Research 45, 61–112.
• Levine, B., Huang, Q., Isaacs, J. T., Reed, J. C., Griffin, D. E., Hardwick, J. M. 1993. Conversion of lytic to persistent alphavirus infection by the bcl-2 cellular oncogene. Nature ( London) 361, 739–742.
• O’Brien, V. 1998. Viruses and apoptosis. Journal of General Virology 79, 1833–1845.
• Oldstone, M. B. A. 1991. Molecular anatomy of viral persistence. Journal of Virology 65, 6381–6386.
• Roulston, A., Marcellus, R. C., Branton, P. E. 1999. Viruses and apopotosis. Annual Review of Microbiology 53, 577–628.
• Also check Appendix 7 for references specific to each family of viruses.

Chapter 14. Animal Virus - Host Interactions

There is an enormous area to cover, but the following provide a way into the subject and more references.

• Alcamí, A., Koszinowski, U. H. 2000. Viral evasion of immune responses. Immunology Today 21, 447–455.
• Casadevall, A., Pirofski, L.-A. 1999. Host–pathogen interactions: redefining the basic concepts of virulence and pathogenicity. Infection and Immunity 67, 3703–3713.
• Craighead, J. E. 2000. Pathology and Pathogenesis of Human Viral Disease. Academic Press, New York.
• Fujinami, R. S., ed. 1990. Mechanisms of viral pathogenicity. Seminars in Virology 1, (4) (several articles).
• Kovarik, J., Siegrist, C.-A. 1998. Immunity in early life. Immunology Today 19, 150–152.
• Lederberg, J. 1999. Paradoxes of the host–parasite relationship. American Society for Microbiology News 65, 811–816.
• Mims, C. A., Nash, A., Stephen, J. 2000. Mims’ Pathogenesis of Infectious Disease, 5th edn. Academic Press, London.
• Pawelec, G., Solana, R. 1997. Immunosenescence. Immunology Today 18, 514–516.
• Preston , C. M. 2000. Repression of viral transcription during herpes simplex virus latency. Journal of General Virology 81, 1–19.
• Smith, G. L., ed. 1998. Immunomodulation by viruses. Seminars in Virology 8, 359–442 (several articles).
• Stevens, D. L. 1998. Immunity and the host response. Current Opinion in Infectious Disease 11, 269–270.
• Timbury, M. C. 1997. Notes on Medical Virology. Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh.
• Wright, P. F., ed. 1996. Viral pathogenesis. Seminars in Virology 7, (4) (several articles).
• Also check Appendix 7 for references specific to each family of viruses.

Chapter 15. Mechanisms in Virus Latency

• Amon, W., Farrell, P. J. 2005. Reactivation of Epstein–Barr virus from latency. Reviews in Medical Virology 15, 149–156.
• Efstathiou, S., Preston, C. M. 2005. Towards an understanding of the molecular basis of herpes simplex virus latency. Virus Research 111, 108–119.
• Johnson, A. D., Poteete, A. R., Lauer, G., Sauer, R. T., Ackers, G. K., Ptashne, M. 1981. λ repressor and cro-components of an efficient molecular switch. Nature ( London) 294, 217–223.
• Mitchell, B. M., Bloom, D. C., Cohrs, R. J., Gilden, D. H., Kennedy, P. G. 2003. Herpes simplex virus-1 and varicella-zoster virus latency in ganglia. Journal of Neurovirology 9, 194–204.
• Ptashne, M. 1986. A Genetic Switch. Blackwell Scientific Publications & Cell Press, Palo Alto.
• Ptashne, M., Jeffrey, A., Johnson, A. D., Maurer, R., Meyer, B. J., Pabo, C. O., Roberts, T. M., Sauer, R. T. 1980. How the λ repressor and cro work. Cell 19, 1–11.
• Tsurumi, T., Fujita, M., Kudoh, A. 2005. Latent and lytic Epstein–Barr virus replication strategies. Reviews in Medical Virology 15, 3–15.
• Young, L. S., Rickinson, A. B. 2004. Epstein–Barr virus: 40 years on. Nature Reviews Cancer 4, 757–768.

Chapter 16. Transmission of Viruses

• Alexander, D. J., Brown, I. H. 2000. Recent zoonoses caused by influenza A viruses. Review of Science and Technology of the International Office of Epizootics 19, 197–225.
• Beaty, B. J., Marquardt, W. C. 1995. The Biology of Disease Vectors. ASM Press, Washington.
• Belshe, R. B. 1998. Influenza as a zoonosis: how likely is a pandemic? Lancet 351, 460–461.
• Cleaveland, S. 2003. Emerging infectious diseases of wildlife. Microbiology Today 30, 155.
• Glezen, W. P. 1999. Maternal immunization for the prevention of infections in late pregnancy and early infancy. Infections in Medicine 16, 585–595.
• Kovarik, J., Siegrist, C.-A. 1998. Immunity in early life. Immunology Today 19, 150–152.
• Krauss, H., Weber, A., Appel, M., Enders, B., Isenberg, H. D., Schiefer, H. G., Slenczka, W., von Graevenitz, A., Zahner, H. 2003. Zoonoses: infectious diseases transmissible from animals to humans, 3rd edn. ASM Press, Herndon, VA.
• Kruse, H., Kirkemo, A-M., Handelande, K. et al. 2004. Wildlife as a source of zoonotic infection. Emerging Infectious Diseases 10, 2067–2072.
• McIntyre, J. 2003. Mothers with HIV. British Medical Bulletin 67, 127–135.
• Mims, C. A., Nash, A., Stephen, J. 2000. Mims’ Pathogenesis of Infectious Disease, 5th edn. Academic Press, London.
• Also check Appendix 7 for references specific to each family of viruses.

Chapter 17. The Evolution of Viruses

• Black, F. L., 1966. Measles endemicity in insular populations: critical community size and its evolutionary implications. Journal of Theoretical Biology 11, 207–211.
• Domingo, E., Holland, J. J., 1997. RNA virus mutations and fitness for survival. Annual Review of Microbiology 51, 151–178.
• Domingo, E., Webster, R. G., Holland, J. J., 1999. Origin and Evolution of Viruses. Academic Press, New York.
• Fenner, F., Ratcliffe, F. N., 1965. Myxomatosis. Cambridge University Press, London.
• Griffiths, P. D., 2004. Should vaccines and antiviral therapy for influenza now be deployed strategically? Reviews in Medical Virology 14, 137–139.
• Guan, Y., Poon, L. L. M., Cheung, C. Y. et al. 2004. H5N1 influenza: a protean threat. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 101, 8156–8161.
• Kobasa, D., Takada, A. E. A., Shinya, K. et al. 2004. Enhanced virulence of influenza A viruses with the haemagglutinin of the 1918 pandemic virus. Nature ( London) 431, 703–707.
• Lamb, R. A., Krug, R. M. 1996. Orthomyxoviridae: the viruses and their replication. In Fields Virology (B. N. Fields, D. M. Knipe, and P. M. Howley, eds), Vol. 1, 3rd edn, pp. 1353–1395. Lippincott-Raven, Philadelphia.
• Lipatov, A. S., Govorkova, E. A., Webby, R. J. et al. 2004. Influenza: emergence and control. Journal of Virology 78, 8951–8959.
• Nicholson, K. G., Wood, J. N., Zambon, M. 2003. Influenza. Lancet 362, 1733–1745.
• Oxford , J. S. 2000. Influenza A pandemics of the 20 th century with special reference to 1918: virology, pathology and epidemiology. Reviews in Medical Virology 10, 119–133.
• Reid, A. H., Taubenberger, J. K., Fanning, T. G., 2004. Evidence of an absence: the genetic origins of the 1918 pandemic influenza virus. Nature Reviews Microbiology 2, 909–914.
• Webby, R. J., Webster, R. G., 2003. Are we ready for pandemic influenza? Science 302, 1519–1522.
• Also check Appendix 7 for references specific to each family of viruses.

Chapter 18. Human Viral Disease: An Overview

• Collier, L., Oxford, J. 2006. Human Virology, 3rd edn. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
• Mims, C. A., Nash, A., Stephen, J. 2000. Mims’ Pathogenesis of Infectious Disease, 5th edn. Academic Press, London.

Chapter 19. HIV & AIDS

• Burton , D. R., Desrosiers, R. C., Doms, R. W. et al. 2004. HIV vaccine design and the neutralizing antibody problem. Nature Immunology 5, 233–236.
• Butera, S. T., ed. 2005. HIV Chemotherapy. Caister Academic Press, Portland, OR.
• Desrosiers, R. C. 2004. Prospects for an AIDS vaccine. Nature Medicine 10, 221–223.
• Doan, L. X., Li, M., Chen, C., Yao, Q. 2005. Viruslike particles as HIV-1 vaccines. Reviews in Medical Virology 15, 75–88.
• Douek, D. C., Picker, L. J., Koup, R. A. 2003. T cell dynamics in HIV-1 infection. Annual Review of Immunology 21, 265–304.
• Escourt, M. J., McMichael, A. J., Hanke, T. 2004. DNA vaccines against human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Immunological Reviews 199, 144–155.
• Fauci, A., Touchette, N. A., Folkers, G. K. 2005. Emerging infectious diseases: a 10-year perspective from the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. Emerging Infectious Diseases 11, 519–525.
• Garber, D. A., Silvestri, G., Feinberg, M. B. 2004. Prospects for an AIDS vaccine: three big questions, no easy answers. Lancet Infectious Diseases 4, 397–413.
• Greene, W. C., Peterlin, B. M. 2002. Charting HIV’s remarkable voyage through the cell: basic science as a passport to future therapy. Nature Medicine 8, 673–680.
• Johnson, W. E., Desrosiers, R. C. 2002. Viral persistence: HIV’s strategies of immune system evasion. Annual Review of Medicine 53, 499–518.
• Klein, M. 2003. Prospects and challenges for prophylactic and therapeutic HIV vaccines. Vaccine 21, 616–619.
• Levy, J. A. 1998. HIV and the Pathogenesis of AIDS, 2nd ed. ASM Press, Herndon, VA.
• Mascola, J. R. 2003. Defining the protective antibody response. Current Molecular Medicine 3, 209–216.
• Mascola, J. R., Lewis, M. G., VanCott, T. C. et al. 2003. Cellular immunity elicited by human immunodeficiency virus type 1/simian immunodeficiency virus DNA vaccination does not augment the sterile protection afforded by passive infusion of neutralizing antibodies. Journal of Virology 77, 10348–10356.
• Mascola, J. R., Montefiori, D. C. 2003. HIV-1: nature’s master of disguise. Nature Medicine 9, 393–395.
• McIntyre, J. 2003. Mothers with HIV. British Medical Bulletin 67, 127–135.
• Moore , J. P., Kitchen, S. G., Pugach, D., Zack, J. A. 2004. The CCR5 and CXCR4 coreceptors: central to understanding the transmission and pathogenesis of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses 20, 111–126.
• Pantaleo, G., Koup, R. A. 2004. Correlates of immune protection in HIV-1 infection: what we know, what we don’t know, what we should know. Nature Medicine 10, 806–810.
• Pillay, D., Taylor, S., Richman, D. D. 2000. Incidence and impact of resistance against approved antiretroviral drugs. Reviews in Medical Virology 10, 231–253.
• Rambaut, A., Posada, D., Crandall, K. A., Holmes, E. C. 2004. The causes and consequences of HIV evolution. Nature Reviews Genetics 5, 52–61.
• Rinaldo, C. R., Piazza, P. 2004. Virus infection of dendritic cells: portal for host invasion and host defense. Trends in Microbiology 12, 337–345.
• Sharland, M., Gibb, D. M., Tudor-Williams, G. 2003. Advances in the prevention and treatment of paediatric HIV infection in the United Kingdom. Sexually Transmitted Infections 79, 53–55.
• Shattock, R. J., Moore, L. P. 2003. Inhibiting sexual transmission of HIV-1 infection. Nature Reviews Microbiology 1, 25–34.
• Whitney, J. B., Ruprecht, R. M. 2004. Live attenuated HIV vaccines: pitfalls and prospects. Current Opinion in Infectious Disease 17, 17–26.
• Zolla-Pazner, S. 2004. Identifying epitopes of HIV-1 that induce protecting antibodies. Nature Reviews Immunology 4, 199–210.
• The IAVI website: http://www.iavi.org/iavireport/0803/clades-vax.htm
• The United Nations AIDS website: http://www.UNAIDS.org
• Also check Appendix 7 for references specific to each family of viruses.

Chapter 20. Carcinogenesis and Tumor Viruses

• Barmak, K., Harhaj, E., Grant, C., Alefantis, T., Wigdahl, B. 2003. Human T cell leukemia virus type 1–induced disease: pathways to cancer and neurodegeneration. Virology 308, 1–12.
• Block, T. M., Mehta, A. S., Fimmel, C. J., Jordan, R. 2003. Molecular viral oncology of hepatocellular carcinoma. Oncogene 22, 5093–5107.
• Bouchard, M. J., Schneider, R. J. 2004. The enigmatic X gene of hepatitis B virus. Journal of Virology 78, 12725–12734.
• Butel, J. S. 2000. Viral carcinogenesis: revelation of molecular mechanisms and etiology of human disease. Carcinogenesis 21, 405–426.
• Classon, M., Harlow, E. 2002. The retinoblastoma tumor suppressor in development and cancer. Nature Reviews: Cancer 2, 910–917.
• Dilworth, S. M. 2002. Polyoma virus middle T antigen and its role in identifying cancer-related molecules. Nature Reviews: Cancer 2, 1–6.
• Eiben, G. L., Da Silva, D. M., Fausch, S. C., Le Poole, I. C., Nishimura, M. I., Kast, W. M. 2003. Cervical cancer vaccines: recent advances in HPV research. Viral Immunology 16, 111–121.
• Endter, C., Dobner, T. 2004. Cell transformation by human adenoviruses. Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology 273, 163–214.
• Gazdar, A. F., Butel, J. S., Carbone, M. 2002. SV40 and human tumors: myth, association or causality? Nature Reviews: Cancer 2, 957–964.
• Harris, S. L., Levine, A. J. 2005. The p53 pathway: positive and negative feedback loops. Oncogene 24, 2899–2908.
• zur Hausen, H. 2002. Papillomaviruses and cancer: from basic studies to clinical application. Nature Reviews: Cancer 2, 342–350.
• Schultz, T. F., Sheldon, J., Greensill, J. 2002. Kaposi’s sarcoma associated herpesvirus (KSHV) or human herpesvirus 8 (HHV8). Virus Research 82, 115–126.
• Young, L. S., Rickinson, A. B. 2004. Epstein–Barr virus: 40 years on. Nature Reviews: Cancer 4, 757–767.
• Also check Appendix 7 for references specific to each family of viruses.

Chapter 21. Vaccines and Antivirals: The Prevention and Treatment of Virus Diseases

• Afzal, M. A. 2002. MMR vaccine. Microbiology Today 29, 116.
• Ahmed, R., ed. 1996. Immunity to viruses. Seminars in Virology 7, 93–155 (several articles).
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• Arvin, A. M. 2000. Measles vaccines – a positive step towards eradicating a negative strand. Nature Medicine 6, 744–745.
• Bailey, J., Blankson, J. N., Wind-Rotolo, M., Siliciano, R. F. 2004. Mechanisms of HIV-1 escape from immune responses and antiretroviral drugs. Current Opinion in Immunology 16, 470–476.
• Behbehani, A. M. 1991. The smallpox story: historical perspective. American Society for Microbiology News 57, 571–576.
• Belshe, R. B., Couch, R. B., Glezen, W. P., Treanor, J. J. 2002. Live attenuated intranasal influenza vaccine. Vaccine 20, 3429–3430.
• Ben-Yedidia, T., Arnon, R. 1997. Design of peptide and polypeptide vaccines. Current Opinion in Biotechnology 8, 442–448.
• Beverley, P. C. L. 1997. Vaccine immunity. Immunology Today 18, 413–415.
• Birmingham , K. 1999. Report calculates value for money of US vaccine R&D. Nature Medicine 5, 469.
• de Clercq, E. 2004. Antivirals and antiviral strategies. Nature Reviews Microbiology 2, 704–720.
• Cox, J. C., Coulter, A. R. 1997. Adjuvants – a classification and review of their modes of action. Vaccine 15, 248–256.
• Dixon , B. 2001. Measles, polio, and conscience. American Society for Microbiology News 67, 124–125.
• Glezen, W. P., Alpers, M. 1999. Maternal immunization. Clinical Infectious Diseases 28, 219–224.
• Katze, M. G., He, Y., Gale, M. 2002. Viruses and interferon: a fight for supremacy. Nature Reviews Immunology 2, 675–687.
• Lehner, T., Anton, P. A. 2003. Mucosal immunity and vaccination against HIV. AIDS 16(Suppl 4), S125– S132.
• Lewis, P. J., Babiuk, L. A. 1999. DNA vaccines: a review. Advances in Virus Research 54, 129–188.
• Maassab, H. F., Bryant, M. L. 1999. The development of live attenuated cold-adapted influenza virus vaccines for humans. Reviews in Medical Virology 9, 237–244.
• Meltzer, M. I. 2003. Risks and benefits of preexposure and postexposure smallpox vaccination. Emerging Infectious Diseases 9, 1363–1370.
• Meltzer, M. I., Neuzil, K. M., Griffin, M. R., Fukuda, K. 2005. An economic analysis of annual influenza vaccination of children. Vaccine 23, 1004–1014.
• Minor, P. D. 2002. Emerging/disappearing viruses. Future issues concerning polio eradication. Virus Research 82, 33–37.
• Pomerantz, R. J., Horn, D. L. 2003. Twenty years of therapy for HIV-1 infection. Nature Medicine 9, 867–873.
• Racaniello, V. R. 1988. Poliovirus neurovirulence. Advances in Virus Research 34, 217–246.
• Robinson, A., Cranage, M. P., Hudson, M. 2003. Vaccine Protocols, 2nd edn. Humana, Totowa, NJ.
• Spier, R. E. 1998. Ethical aspects of vaccines and vaccination. Vaccine 16, 1788–1794.
• Webster, R. G. 2000. Immunity to influenza in the elderly. Vaccine 18, 1686–1689.
• Wild, T. F. 1999. Measles vaccines, new developments and immunization strategies. Vaccine 17, 1726–1729.
• Yuki, Y., Kiyono, H. 2003. New generation of mucosal adjuvants for the induction of protective immunity. Reviews in Medical Virology 13, 293–310.
• Zambon, M. 1999. Active and passive immunization against respiratory syncytial virus. Reviews in Medical Virology 9, 227–236.
• The World Health Organization web pages on vaccines: http://www.who.int/vaccines
• Also check Appendix 7 for references specific to each family of viruses.

Chapter 22. Prion Diseases

• Aguzzi, A., Polymenidou, M. 2004. Mammalian prion biology: one century of evolving concepts. Cell 116, 313–327.
• Bruce, M. E. 2003. TSE strain variation. British Medical Bulletin 66, 99–108.
• Chien, P., Weissman, J. S., DePace, A. H. 2004. Emerging principles of conformation based prion inheritance. Annual Review of Biochemistry 73, 617–656.
• Glatzel, M., Giger, O., Seeger, H., Aguzzi, A. 2004. Variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease: between lymphoid organs and brain. Trends in Microbiology 12, 51–53.
• Hill, A. F., Collinge, J. 2003. Subclinical prion infection. Trends in Microbiology 11, 578–584.
• Ironside, J. W., Head, M. W. 2004. Neuropathology and molecular biology of variant Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease. Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology 284, 133–159.
• Pattison, J. 1998. The emergence of bovine spongiform encephalopathy. Emerging Infectious Diseases 4, 390–394.
• Ricketts, M. N. 2004. Public health and the BSE epidemic. Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology 284, 99–119.
• Silveira, J. R., Caughey, B., Baron, G. S. 2004. Prion protein and the molecular features of transmissible spongiform encephalopathy agents. Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology 284, 1–50.
• Soto, C., Castilla, J. 2004. The controversial protein-only hypothesis of prion propagation. Nature Reviews Neuroscience (Suppl. July 2004), S63–S67.
• Weissmann, C. 2004. The state of the prion. Nature Reviews Microbiology 2, 861–871.
• Weissmann, C., Aguzzi, A. 2005. Approaches to therapy of prion diseases. Annual Reviews of Medicine 56, 321–344.
• The UK Creutzfeldt–Jakob Disease Surveillance Unit web site. http://www.cjd.ed.ac.uk/
• The UK Government BSE web site. http://www.defra.gov.uk/animalh/bse/index.html
• The World Health Organization TSE web pages.http://www.who.int/topics/spongiform_encephalopathies_transmissible/en/

Chapter 23. Horizons in Human Virology

• Burton , D. R., Barbas III, C. F. 1994. Human antibodies from combinatorial libraries. Advances in Immunology 57, 191–280.
• Casillas, A. M., Nyamathi, A. M., Sosa, A., Wilder, C. L., Sands, H. 2003. A current review of Ebola virus: pathogenesis, clinical presentation, and diagnostic assessment. Biological Research for Nursing 4, 268–275.
• Cavazzana-Calvo, M., Hacein-Bey, S., Yates, F., de Villartay, J. P., Le Deist, F., Fischer, A. 2001. Gene therapy of severe combined immunodeficiencies. Journal of Gene Medicine 4, 201–206.
• Espagne, E., Douris, V., Lalmanach, G. et al. 2005. A virus essential for insect host–parasite interactions encodes cystatins. Journal of Virology 79, 9765–9776.
• Fauci, A., Touchette, N. A., Folkers, G. K. 2005. Emerging infectious diseases: a 10-year perspective from the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. Emerging Infectious Diseases 11, 519–525.
• Geisbert, T. W., Jahrling, P. B. 2004. Exotic emerging viral diseases: progress and challenges. Nature Medicine 10, S110–S121.
• Hayes, E. B. 2005. Virology, pathology, and clinical manifestations of West Nile virus disease. Emerging Infectious Diseases 11, 1174–1179.
• Holliger, P., Hudson, P. J. 2005. Engineered antibody fragments and the rise of single domains. Nature Biotechnology 23, 1126–1135.
• Imperiale, M. J., Kochanek, S. 2004. Adenovirus vectors: biology, design and production. Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology 273, 335–357.
• Jackson , N. A. C., Levi, M., Wahren, B., Dimmock, N. J. 1999. Mechanism of action of a 17 amino acid microantibody specific for the V3 loop that neutralizes free HIV-1 virions. Journal of General Virology 80, 225–236.
• Katze, M. G., He, Y., Gale, M. 2002. Viruses and interferon: a fight for supremacy. Nature Reviews Immunology 2, 675–687.
• Kay, M. A., Glorioso, J. C., Naldini, L. 2001. Viral vectors for gene therapy: the art of turning infectious agents into vehicles of therapeutics. Nature Medicine 7, 33–40.
• Krug, R. M., Yuan, W., Noah, D. L., Latham, A. G. 2003. Intracellular warfare between human influenza viruses and human cells: the roles of the viral NS1 protein. Virology 309, 181–189.
• Mayer, J., Meese, E. 2005. Human endogenous retroviruses in the primate lineage and their influence on host genomes. Cytogenetics and Genome Research 110, 448–456.
• McCormack, M. P., Rabbitts, T. H. 2004. Activation of the T-cell oncogene LMO2 after gene therapy for X-linked severe combined immunodeficiency. New England Journal of Medicine 350, 913–922.
• Melchers, W., Zoll, J., van Kuppveld, F., Swanink, C., Galama, J. 1994. There is no evidence for persistent enterovirus infections in chronic medical conditions in humans. Reviews in Medical Virology 4, 235–243.
• Muir, P., Archard, L. C. 1994. There is evidence for persistent enterovirus infections in chronic medical conditions in humans. Reviews in Medical Virology 4, 245–250.
• Pourrut, X., Kumulungui, B., Wittmann, T. et al. 2005. The natural history of Ebola virus in Africa. Microbes and Infection 7, 1005–1014.
• Rosling, M., Rosling, L. 2003. Pneumonia causes panic in Guangdong province. British Medical Journal 326, 416.
• Rote, N. S., Chakrabarti, S., Stetzer, B. P. 2004. The role of human endogenous retroviruses in trophoblast differentiation and placental development. Placenta 25, 673–683.
• Whitfield, J. B. 1990. Parasitoids, polydnaviruses, and endosymbiosis. Parasitology Today 6, 381–384.
• The website for the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA. http://www.cdc.gov/
• Also check Appendix 7 for references specific to each family of viruses.